Imperial powers, which made significant progress throughout the world, particularly in the nineteenth century, are known to have used Christian communities as a tool for their expansionist policies. They tried to make inroads in the Orient by converting Christian communities to their own churches or backing their fellow church followers on the pretext of saving them from “Muslim oppression.” There are some irrefutable facts about these schools and they can be summarized as such: these schools opened by the Great States on Ottoman soil were missionary schools and the missionary activities played sinister roles in the implementation of their imperialistic policies throughout the world. These schools led to the division of ancient churches in the Orient, while the newly emerging communities were exploited as a tool in the division of the region under the auspices of their new patrons. All in all, missionary activities and missionary schools of the nineteenth century were leading factors at the root of many contemporary problems. To examine missionary education on Ottoman soil by taking it out of this context would not reflect the reality. The missionary educational system which financed itself with support and donations from the wider public was highly active in Europe, and particularly in the United States of America. Filling the donation boxes was closely tied to exaggerated news from the Orient about the oppression and torture inflicted upon their Christian brothers and sisters. Increasing donations to charity boxes depended upon supporting such exaggeration through lies and slander, and this is what happened. There is no doubt that the malicious acts of missionaries played a decisive role in and was at the root of anti-Turkish propaganda, the effects of which are felt to this day. Dealing with the missionary schools established throughout the Ottoman land within this context is an inevitable necessity. From the aspects of organization, quantity and quality, the most rigorous and advanced examples of the schools that had a deep influence on the Turkish educational system were naturally located in Istanbul.

CATHOLIC MISSIONARY SCHOOLS

French Schools

Franciscan and Dominican orders, which were among the most prominent Catholic missionary communities established in the ninettenth century, started effective missionary activities in target regions, such as Istanbul, İzmir, Syria, and Jerusalem, etc. France, which considered itself the protector of Catholic Christians, increased Catholic propaganda greatly in the sixteenth century through Jesuit missionaries; these missionaries started their activities within the borders of the Ottoman State after other missionary groups.¹ Jesuit missionaries, sent by the Pope in 1583, upon the request of Catholic Christians living in Istanbul, spread over a wide area within the Ottoman borders after that period. The Jesuits who came to Istanbul laid the foundations of St. Benoît School, which still continues today. This church hosted the Capuchin priests who came to Ottoman lands after the Jesuits. As a result of missionary activities, there appeared a significant increase in conversions among religions and religious denominations from among the non-Muslim communities. Those activities bore fruit during the period of Mahmud II when Hagopos Chukuryan was appointed in 1831 Patriarch of the Catholic Armenian community, which was recognized as being a separate community from the Gregorian Armenian Church.²

International commercial competition, which became quite heated in the nineteenth century, made European states see communities that had converted to their own religion and denominations as future consumers. As a matter of fact, those communities opened many schools related to commerce and industry after the mid-nineteenth century. The most successful of those schools were Saint-Joseph College located in Kadıköy, the High Institute of Commerce, and the section of commerce at Saint-Benoit School in Galata. The relationship between the state, missionaries and commerce is clearly expressed in Paul Fesch’s words: “the real goal of the efforts towards civilizing the Orient should not be only to find markets for our national products or to find the markets that can provide the cheapest raw materials.”

In respect to protecting the Catholics who lived in Ottoman lands, France became one of the states which benefited more, in comparison to other Catholic states (Italy, Austria and Spain) from the capitulations. At the beginning of the nineteenth century, there were 116 French schools in Istanbul, Egypt, Alexandria, Cairo, Jaffa, Jerusalem, Haifa, Beirut, Lebanon, Damascus, İzmir and Edirne. As of 1904, France was supporting many schools in the Ottoman State, which were teaching 62,336 students and providing education in French. 6,668 of those students were located in Istanbul and its neighborhoods.

During the period of Abdülhamid II, French schools made great progress in both the number and intensity of their activities. The following statement found among the childhood memoirs of Naciye Neyyal, the wife of Tevfik Bey, one of the governors of Salonika in the period of Abdülhamid II, about her years at the French School in Çamlıca, demonstrates the local Muslim community’s view regarding those schools: “although our mother sent us to that school, she did not want our neighbors, relatives, and friends to know about it. Because everyone was very religious in those days and sending two Muslim girls to a foreign school might be the cause of certain rumors. That is why she decided to find aliases for us.”

Student Fees and Curricula

Even though French schools admitted some students free of charge, parents of the students still had to bear significant expenses. These expenses varied depending on the school.

Since the French schools which were established in various places were not administered from a single center, but rather managed by different missionary communities, they did not follow a common curriculum. However, all of them had one goal, to educate students in accordance with the interests of France. One of the members of the Alliance Française, which had been founded to encourage the spread of the French language throughout the world, said in a speech, “The French language ensures French habits and French habits mean the sale of French products. Those who know French become the customer of France.” Students of French schools “know the history, geography and mountains of France better than their own country. They know the mountains and tributaries of the rivers. They know all the details of goods imported and exported by France. Students read about things in French history that they have not read about in the history of their own country.”³

In addition to the simple curriculum that was taught in rural schools, the courses taught at primary and secondary schools in the cities usually included ethics, French reading-writing, grammar, calligraphy, physical sciences, calculus, geometry, natural sciences, history, geography, foreign languages, music, painting, needlework and gymnastics.⁴ In order to make a comparison, it is best to look at the curriculum of the school opened under the administration of Madam Gravye in the district of Istanbul Kağıthane:

In addition to the schools that adopted the above-mentioned simple curriculum, there were also schools (colleges) with a comprehensive curriculum. Below is the curriculum from the boarding school Notre Dame de Sion, located in Istanbul.

While students were given violin and piano lessons in most French schools in Istanbul, the schools also included large theaters and guest halls in which such activities could be performed. In addition to the art schools, almost all the schools that belonged to religious communities had workshops; here students could be trained in carpentry, woodcarving, stone sculpturing, tailoring, gardening and clock making. In addition to such activities, continued contact between the alumni was guaranteed by associations that were established by the students. In this context, the graduates of Kadıköy Frère School met on May 25, 1897 and organized a class reunion. In his speech, Mr. Caserto, the principal of the association, spoke about schools that had opened in various parts of the country during the reign of Sultan Abdulhamid II and thanked Ottoman officials.⁵

Many school buildings constructed by French missionary communities in Istanbul are still standing in various parts of the city. It is possible to say that the architectural styles of the schools that were constructed during the period of Abdülhamid II had a positive influence on architecture.

Below is a list showing the places and dates of construction for a large number of officially recognized French schools that were located in Istanbul in 1901.

In 1913, the French schools in Istanbul were as follows:

Secular French Schools in Istanbul

Fauré School: this school was established in 1868 in Moda. The Fauré School (Dame de Sion College) provided instruction in a building that belonged to Aristidi Tobini; the administration of the mission was secular and the school consisted of a total of eleven classes made up of 2 years of preparatory classes, 3 years of elementary school, 3 years of high school, and 3 years of senior high school. The school was a fee-paying school and French was obligatory while other languages were optional. Years later, Leon Fauré, one of the founders of the school, mentored Atatürk in secularism and obtained the concessions for several mines. This school is also known as the place where the Galatasaray football club played its first game.

Alberti School for Girls: This school was opened in the district of Ortaköy in 1897. It was second secular school to provide education for girls and was administered by Madam Alberti. The school, which had initially been opened without a license, was officially recognized according to an agreement dated 1913.

The Abolishment of Capitulations and the State of French Schools in Istanbul

The abolishment of capitulations and the beginning of World War I had a great effect on the French schools and institutions. With one edict, all privileges were abolished. With the outbreak of World War I, states established alliances. According to these alliances, state institutions which sided with the Ottoman State were exempt from this edict. The information below is given to show why schools and monasteries confiscated by the government were used.

The Union French Club located in the district of Beyoğlu was transformed into a law school.

The school of Franciscan priests located on Prinkipo (Büyükada) Island was confiscated and the girls’ section was turned into the Numune School, while the boys’ section was transformed into a police center.

The charity house of the Nuns of Petite Soeur de Pauvres located in the district of Şişli, Bomanti was confiscated by the military.

These above are the representative cases of many other instances of confiscations. Most of the schools which were confiscated were opened after the Armistice and most of the lands of the Ottoman State were occupied. During the occupation, Allied forces evacuated the confiscated buildings and restored them to their original function. From correspondence with the French embassy in relation to the schools, it can be understood that the edict which had removed all the privileges and annulled all the agreements was no longer valid. The opening of new schools during the years of occupation continued without interruption.

Italian Schools

The Prince Amedeo Italian Commerce School (1888): This school was established in Beyoğlu, Yeniçarşı by the Italian Workmen’s Association as an eight-grade school consisting of elementary and high school. Its principals were the lawyer Zakaniti and the businessman Korbelli. The school taught 133 students and six male teachers were employed. Four of the teachers were Italian, one was Armenian, and one German. The school had originally been on Polonya Street; an estate was later built on this location.

The Italian Girls’ School (1870) 1882: This school was built with an imperial edict but without a license in the district of Ağahamamı, Beyoğlu, as a seven-grade school consisting of an elementary and high school. Its principal was Soeur Superior Elizabeth Goreti. It had 250 female students from Catholic backgrounds and 30 students from other religious backgrounds. There were seven Italian instructors, with one French instructor. The school was moved to Suterazisi Street in 1876 and an estate was built in the location in Ağahamamı.

The Italian Girls’ School (1870) 1904: This was located in the district of Beyoğlu next to the French Church and consisted of two elementary classes. It was established by imperial edict without a license. The founders were Salésien priests and the principal was Paulo Ilgaroti. It was constructed in 1870 and then opened in the location of the former school together with the Italian School of Commerce. There were ten students enrolled.

The Italian Girls’ School 1870: This school was established without license by an edict in Büyükdere across from the French Church and consisted of four elementary classes. It was transferred from Austrian patronage to Italian patronage. The school was built as an estate next to St. Antoine Church. There were 30 male and female students.

The Bartolome Giustiniani Institute (1903): This school was established by Salésien priests in Feriköy. It moved to Beyoğlu in 1904.

The Italian Girls’ School (1912): This school was opened in Moda, Kadıköy in the name of Italian princes. Male students were also admitted to this school.

Schools Transferred from French to Italian Patronage

Among the Catholic missionary communities that came to Ottoman lands in the 16^th century there were mystic orders of Italian origin. These orders preferred to remain under French patronage until the end of the nineteenth century. At the beginning of the twentieth century, some of the schools that had been established by Dominican, Frères Mineurs Conventuel and Salésien missionaries were transferred to the patronage of the Italian State to which they were affiliated. Below is a list of schools that were transferred from French to Italian patronage.

Austro-Hungarian Schools

Within the context of its interests, the state of Austro-Hungary supported Catholics living in the Ottoman lands through Franciscan, Soeur de Charite, Soeur Stigmatises and Mihitarist priests and nuns. Relying on the Treaty of Belgrade, the Austro-Hungarian state tried to further its interests. It approved the recognition of the existing 245 institutions with a list that it presented to the Ottoman authorities at the beginning of the twentieth century. Detailed information about the schools in Istanbul that were directly protected by Austro-Hungary is as follows:

The Austrian School (1848): This school was on Tomtom Street in the district of Beyoğlu. The building had eight stories, and consisted of an elementary school and a high school. It was under the patronage of the Austrian Consulate and served 300 male and female Jewish students. Seven of the eight instructors were foreigners and one was Turkish. There was a staff of seven assistants. The school did not have a license.

St. Georges School (1864): This school was on Eski Banka Street in the district of Beyoğlu. It was an eight-story building consisting of an elementary school and a high school. The school was under the administration of the Austrian Catholic clergy. The principal of the girls’ section was Madam Baver. There were 400 male and female students. The administrative staff usually spoke in German. In addition to the principles of the Catholic Church, male students were taught a trade and female students were trained in handcrafts. This school did not have a license.

The Austrian School (1853): This school was located in the Santa Maria Church on Posta Street in Beyoğlu. It was an eight-story building consisting of an elementary school, high school, and senior high school. It had 25 students who were taught by the Santa Maria priests and did not have a license.

The Paruvas School: This was one of the Austrian schools to be recognized in 1904.

German Schools

The German Oberrealschule/German Mekteb-i Kebîri: This was one of the most important German institutions in Istanbul. It started its activities in 1868 in Beyoğlu with 2 teachers and 23 students. After the school opened, it continued its educational activities without interruption until the earthquake which occurred in Istanbul in 1894. As the building was destroyed in the earthquake, it was rebuilt and teaching resumed in 1897. The school grew larger over time and in 1905 had 24 teachers and 626 (male-female) students. As the building was not large enough to house all the students, in 1915 a five-story building on Hoca Ali Street was rented for five years, starting on September 14, 1915; this operated as a branch of the school.

The Yedikule German School: This was another German School in Istanbul that was opened by the engineer Teres in 1875 between Yedikule and Samatya. The school was opened to provide education for the children of workers on the Rumelian Railways. In 1905 the school had three classes consisting of an elementary and a high school and taught 90 male and female students.

The Haydarpaşa German School: this school was established to educate the children of the workers on the Anatolian Railways and was granted a license on September 16, 1895. The school building was constructed in 1903 on land registered in the name of the Frenchman Edgar Hugen, the manager of Haydarpaşa Railways, so that students would no longer need to go to the German Mekteb-i Kebîri (High School). The school could now provide an education in its own building. By 1905, one hundred students were being educated in this school, which had two elementary classes and three high school classes, with five instructors.

The Bebek German School: This school, which was built by Doctor Brokes in 1896 in order to advance the German language in Bebek, was moved to Mamuratülaziz in 1906 due to a lack of students. In 1905 the school, which gave night classes at the orphanage in Bebek, had 15 students.

PROTESTANT SCHOOLS

British Schools

The establishment of the Baptist Missionary Society in 1792 in London by a British man named William Carey is regarded as the beginning of global missionary activities in the modern sense. This society began its activities in India. The ministers of the Baptist Missionary Society, which arrived in Ottoman lands in 1815, were spiritual aids to the Levant Company, which took care of British commercial interests in the Ottoman State until the first quarter of the nineteenth century. Protestant missionary activities increased at an unstoppable rate after that date, reaching their peak at the beginning of the twentieth century. The British missionary communities which carried out hospital, orphanage, school, pharmacy and other services in Istanbul in the nineteenth and twentieth centuries, were:

1) The Free Church of Scotland Mission

2) London Jews’ Society

3) The Religious Society of Friends

British missionaries, who came to the Ottoman capital of Istanbul much earlier (1804) than other Ottoman cities somehow could not achieve the same success in Istanbul that they did elsewhere.

The Islahat Fermanı (reform edict), enacted under pressure from European countries, provided a wide area of movement not only for non-Muslim subjects, but also for foreigners. The number of British schools, around ten in 1856 when the Islahat Fermanı was enacted, reached thirty when article 129 of Maarif-i Umûmiyye Nizamnâmesi (public education code), dated 1868, took effect the following year. This code aimed to organize the establishment of local and foreign private schools. There is no doubt that the administrators of the period made a significant contribution to the increase in student numbers. The most remarkable example of such contributions during this period, a time when the state did not yet have any administrative policies in dealing with foreign schools, is that Abdülmecid, the sultan of the era, gave some land to the wife of Lord Stratford R. Canning, the British ambassador in Istanbul, to build a girls’ school (December 9, 1857).

Compared to the number of British missionary schools in other regions, which was 28 in Jerusalem, 25 in Syria, 24 in Mount Lebanon, and 9 in İzmir, there were only 5 in Istanbul in 1905. The reason for the limited number was probably due to the fact that Istanbul received a lot of attention internationally and that the British gave more attention to places where they had political ambitions. In the British missionary schools located in Istanbul, there was a total of 1,262 students receiving education, 990 of whom were female and 272 of whom were male.

The oldest British school in Istanbul was the mixed gender school for Polish Jews; this was opened in 1842 on Çınar Street in the district of Bereket-zade and belonged to the Free Church of Scotland Mission.⁶ In 1905, the number of students who attended this school was 380 females and 120 males.⁷ The reason for Hasköy being the main district where British missionaries focused their attention was the existence of Spanish and Polish Jewish communities there. There were two British schools in Hasköy. One was on Kırkmerdiven Street, in the district of Kiremitçi Ahmed Çelebi (1859)⁸ and the other was the school of the London Jews’ Society on Okmeydanı Street, Ayazma Road, in the district of Kiremitçi Ahmed Çelebi (1845). There was also an orphanage in the district of İncirdibi, Kumkapı (1887).

While almost all of the schools that we have dealt with so far were established and administered either by individuals or by missionary communities, the British school known as the “English High School”, which was established on Tomtom Street in Firuz Ağa, Beyoğlu in 1848, was founded directly by the British Embassy.⁹ Moreover, because there was neither awareness nor regulations regarding foreign schools at the time of the construction of this school, the school’s land was donated by Sultan Abdülmecid. In accordance with their policies of patronage, foreign states preferred to remain behind the scenes during the construction stages of the schools and to intervene only when a problem emerged.

From the beginning of the twentieth century until the collapse of the Ottoman State the British did not engage in serious activities other than maintaining the existing institutions in Istanbul. Even though British institutions were closed, as were institutions of other states during World War I, British schools in Istanbul resumed their activities during the occupation of the city.

American Schools

American missionaries who came to the Ottoman State in 1820 opened their first school in 1824 in Beirut. William Goodell, who arrived in Istanbul from Beirut in 1831, opened a day school for Greek girls in his own home in 1832. Benjamin Schneider, who organized the establishment of several schools after Goodell, went first to Bursa in 1834 and from there to Istanbul. American missionaries opened a boys’ school for Armenian children in Beyoğlu in 1834. It is possible to understand from the procedure that was followed to close the school after a complaint was made a few years later (1837) that after its inauguration not only Armenian children, but also children from other communities (Catholic, Greek and Jewish) were admitted to this school. In place of the school that closed, a theology school was opened in Bebek in 1840 by Cyrus Hamlin; this individual came to the Ottoman State in 1839. This school was shut down a year later in response to pressure from the Patriarchate, but teaching was resumed in 1842. After this school, William Goodell established another school for girls in Istanbul in 1845.

It should be noted that British diplomats worked in conjunction with American missionaries during the early years when they were settling in the territories of the Ottoman State. The British Ambassador, Stratford R. Canning and the American missionary, William Goodell cooperated and gradually exerted a great deal of effort to develop a Protestant community.

Robert College

This college, the foundations of which were laid in 1863 by Cyrus Hamlin, who was also the founder of the above-mentioned Bebek theology school, did not teach in the current buildings of the college, but in rented buildings in the same neighborhood. There is an interesting story about the foundation of Robert College. The owner of the land, Ahmed Vefik Pasha, who had made expenditures in the name of the state during his ambassadorship in Paris with the encouragement of Sultan Abdülmecid, found himself in a financially difficult situation due to budget cuts that had been implemented by Âlî Pasha who ruled after the Sultan’s death. In order to pay the debts, he had incurred in Paris, Ahmed Vefik Pasha personally offered to sell his land to Cyrus Hamlin, who had previously offered to buy it.¹⁰

There are many rumors regarding the establishment of Robert College right next to the Rumelian Castle, built by Sultan Mehmed II on the banks of the Bosphorus in order to conquer Istanbul. As can be understood from the memoirs of Cyrus Hamlin, the real reason for choosing this site for the construction of the college was that there were stones on this land which were very useful for building and which had also been used in the construction of the Rumelian Castle.¹¹ It is narrated that Cyrus Hamlin went up the hillside of the Rumelian Castle and shouted in rage: “Sultan Mehmed conquered Istanbul from these walls and I will conquer the culture of this nation from here.” It is also narrated that Sultan Abdülhamid II became angry with Ahmed Vefik Pasha because he had sold his land; as a result, after the pasha died the sultan had him buried in Kayalar cemetery where he would have to listen to the sound of the church bell located nearby until Judgment Day.

It took more than seven years to complete the construction of Robert College, which started teaching with only 4 or 5 students. The coincidence of the authorization for the start of its construction with the American admiral Farragut’s visit to Istanbul led to a number of rumors. The building, which was started in 1869, was finished in 1871. After Hamlin, who was principal of the college until 1876, the school continued to grow during the administrations of George Washburn (1877-1903) and Caleb Gates (1903-1932). As recorded in Ottoman documents, in time, the college grew into a town with the addition of new buildings. At the beginning of the twentieth century the school, which offered 8 years of high school education, had 320 students (Bulgarian, Greek, Armenian, British, Romanian, and American) and 32 instructors.

Üsküdar American Girls’ College

The school, which was established with only 3 to 5 students in a rented house in Gedikpaşa under the administration of Julia Rappleye, continued its educational activities in rented buildings until it moved to its own buildings on land bought in Üsküdar (1876). When the first principal resigned from her job in 1875, the number of students was forty. In the following years the school continued to grow under the administration of the principal Mary Mills Patrick. At the beginning of the twentieth century the school, which provided 10 years of secondary education, had 128 students (Greek, Bulgarian, Armenian, British, American, Turkish, and Romanian) and 26 instructors. Even though the admission of Muslim students to these schools was banned, some Muslim students were known to secretly attend the colleges. It is interesting to note that Halide Edip Adıvar, one of the most famous graduates of this school, supported the idea of an American mandate during the years of the War of Independence. In her writings about the adventures that she experienced while attending this school, she also mentions Sultan Abdülhamid II’s unfavorable view of foreign schools. It is also important to mention the joy felt by the graduates of this school when the Ittihat Terakki (Party of Union and Progress) took over the governing of the country.¹²

The two above-mentioned schools were not the only American schools that were active in Istanbul at the beginning of the twentieth century. There was an elementary school which opened in 1880 under the administration of George Şişmanyan. The school was on Musalla Street in Şeyh Ferhad, Kumkapı. There were 80 girls and 40 boys who received their education there and five teachers. Another school was a three-grade high school established in 1880 on Gregor Efendi Street in Esir Kemaleddin, Gedikpaşa. The school, which was founded by Mr. Peet, taught 100 female and 108 male students. Thirteen teachers (11 female and 2 male) worked at the school.

At the beginning of the twentieth century, six American schools were active in Istanbul. However, there are some discrepancies between American and Ottoman official documents. The schools which are mentioned in Zühtü Pasha’s report of schools in the regions of Hasköy, Samatya and Fincancılar Yokuşu do not appear in the lists certified by the Ottoman authorities in 1903.

Soon after the abolishment of capitulations in 1914, the Ottoman State found itself taking part in World War I. At the start of the War, the Ottoman State confiscated the institutions of enemy states on its land in accordance with article 18 of the above-mentioned code. Since the United States of America avoided participating in the war for a long time (until 1917), the schools under its patronage were not confiscated, except for those in a few provinces. In accordance with the new regulations instituted after the abolishment of the capitulations, it permitted the continuation of American schools.

After the United States joined the war against Germany in 1917, political ties with the United States were broken. Following the loss of political relationships, in some places, the same treatment which had been meted out to institutions of other states began to be applied to the American institutions and their schools were confiscated.

Claiming that the agreements that were abolished during the war were still in effect, the American government did not hesitate to make additions to the old agreements regarding the schools, whereas, the Ottoman State was determined to respect the validity of the procedure which existed before the armistice until the time of its collapse.

THE SCHOOLS OF OTHER STATES

Russian Schools

The Russians not only started their missionary activities later than other states, but also directed such activities to the Syrian region. Their activities in Istanbul were mostly focused on preventing Protestant missionary activities. The opinions expressed in 1839 by Russian subjects to the Russian ambassador Boutineff regarding the collaboration of Mesrob Taliatine, who was an Armenian, with the American Cyrus Hamlin are important. Boutineff threatened the missionary Schauffler, saying that the “Russian emperor, who is my master, will never allow Protestantism to take root in Turkey.” Even though the Russians were not as active in Istanbul as they were in other regions, they still opened some schools in the city.

A mixed gender Russian school opened in 1891 under the administration of Mr. Ospenski (director of the Institute of Russian Ancient Artifacts) on Topçu Çıkmazı Street in Beyoğlu, in the district of Humbaracı Yokuşu. It was built next to the Pangaltı Russian Hospital and all of its estates were the property of the school.

The Russian Priest School, which was opened at No. 13 Beyoğlu, in the district of Hoca Ali, Kulekapısı, operated from a rented building; about 25 priests were still being educated there at the beginning of the twentieth century.

There was another mixed gender Russian school which provided high school and senior high school education at number 10 Tercüman Street in Beyoğlu. 6 classes were taught from a rented building.

Iranian Schools

Even though there were not as many Iranian schools as those established by other states, it is still possible to find some Iranian schools in the Ottoman State which had the status of foreign schools. The establishment of Iranian schools in the final quarter of the nineteenth century, mostly around the provinces of Basra and Baghdad, and the Iranian scholar’s efforts to spread Shiite views in the region led the Ottoman authorities to take precautions, especially at the beginning of the twentieth century.

It can be understood from archival records that the State of Iran sent about thirty students to Istanbul in 1909 and asked the Ottoman authorities to educate them in various schools. The schools opened by Iranians were:

The School of Debistân-ı İrâniyân,¹³ which was established in Beyazıt, in Emin Bey, and provided education until it was damaged by fire in 1911. The school building was a mansion that had been used as the residence for one of Sultan Abdülaziz’s head servants, Nur-i Mah.

Another Iranian school which provided education in the building of the Iranian Hospital located on Mehmed Paşa Yokuşu in the district of Ayasofya was moved to the district of Soğanağa by Muzaffereddin Shah who came to Istanbul in 1900. It can be understood from the records that the school changed its location from time to time as it operated from rented buildings.

BIBLIOGRAPHY

Freely, John, A History of Robert College: The American College for Girls, and Boğaziçi University (Bosphorus University), II vol., Istanbul: Yapı Kredi Kültür Sanat Yayıncılık, 2000.

Greene, Joseph K., Leavening the Levant, Boston: The Pilgrim Press, 1916.

Greenwood, Keith M., Robert College: American Founders, Istanbul Boğaziçi Üniversitesi Yayınları, 2003.

Hamlin, Cyrus, Robert Kolej Uğrunda Bir Ömür, tr. Ayşe Aksu, Istanbul: Dergah Yayınları, 2012.

Jenkins, Hester Donaldson, Robert Kolej’in Kızları, Misyonerlik-Feminizm-Yabancı Okullar, tr. Ayşe Aksu, Istanbul: Dergah Yayınları, 2008.

Mutlu, Şamil, Osmanlı Devleti’nde Misyoner Okulları, Istanbul: Gökkubbe, 2005.

Kocabaşoğlu, Uygur, Kendi Belgeleriyle Anadolu’daki Amerika, Istanbul: Arba Araştırma Basım Yayın, 1989.

Özen, Saadet, Notre Dame de Sion: Yüz Elli Yılın Tanığı, Istanbul: Yapı Kredi Yayınları, 2006.

Patrick, Marry Milles, Bir Boğaziçi Macerası Istanbul Kız Koleji (1871-1924), tr. Şeyma Akın, Istanbul: Tez Yayınları, 2001.

Polvan, Nurettin, Türkiye’de Yabancı Öğretim, Istanbul: Milli Eğitim Bakanlığı, 1952.

White, George E., Bir Amerikan Misyonerinin Merzifon Amerikan Koleji Hatıraları, tr. Cem Tarık Yüksel, Istanbul: Enderun Kitabevi, 1995.

FOOTNOTES

1 Ahmed Refik, “Türkiye’de Katolik Propagandası”, TOEM, vol. 5 (1340), no. 82, p. 276.

2 Kemal Beydilli, II. Mahmud Devri’nde Katolik Ermeni Cemaati ve Kilisesi’nin Tanınması (1830), Cambridge, Mass.: Harvard University, 1995, p. 33.

3 Mustafa Halidî and Ömer Ferruh, Misyonerler Eğitim ve Siyaset, Istanbul: Araştırma Yayınları, 1991, pp. 81-82.

4 The curriculum of the Saint-Antoine French School located on Prinkipo (Büyükada) Island.

5 Ayşe Şen, “Osmanlı Basınında Yüzyıl Önce Bu Ay”, Toplumsal Tarih, 1997, no. 41 (1997), p. 5.

6 Although the land on which the school stood used to belong to the Seyyid Mehmed Tahir Efendi Waqf and the Ayasofya Waqf, it was attached to tax farming in return for 1,500.00 kuruş in 1873, and expanded in 1908. See BOA, ŞD, 2770/41.

7 There is a dispensary and an orphanage (in the schoolyard) which are considered to be a part of the school.

8 This school, which belonged to the Free Church of Scotland, was recognized by an imperial edict on July 4, 1871. Because the two-story building constructed in 1899 was not adequate for the students, it was rebuilt based on plans drawn up by the architect E. Henderson in 1904. See BOA, ŞD, 2682/10.

9 The boy’s school located in Bereketzade moved to the large house with a garden bought in Nişantaşı, Teşvikiye District on İcadiye Street in 1911. See. BOA, DH.İD, 117/32; BOA, ŞD, 2801/5; BOA, HR.HMŞ.İŞO, 74/2-6.

10 Cyrus Hamlin, Robert Kolej Uğrunda Bir Ömür, tr. Ayşe Aksu, Istanbul: Dergah Yayınları, 2012, pp. 379, 413-417.

11 Hamlin, Robert Kolej, p. 379.

12 Hester Donaldson Jenkins, Robert Kolej’in Kızları, Misyonerlik-Feminizm-Yabancı Okullar, tr. Ayşe Aksu, Istanbul: Dergah Yayınları, 2008, p. 144.

13 This school was established under the leadership of the Iranian Embassy as the Cemiyyet-i Debistân-ı İrâniyân in 1882. See. BOA, DH.İD, 123/20, lef 4.